Method for determining prognosis of cancer

ABSTRACT

The present invention relates to a method for determining prognosis of cancer in a subject, which comprises the step of detecting phosphorylation of a tyrosine residue at position 2681 of TRIO in a sample obtained from the subject.

TECHNICAL FIELD

The present invention relates to a method, diagnostic composition, and kit for determining prognosis of cancer in a subject.

BACKGROUND ART

Cancer is the leading cause of death in most industrialized nations, and the direct cause of cancer death is often its metastasis to the vital organs. Colorectal cancer is the third most common cause of cancer mortality in Japan. Every year, ˜100 new patients of colorectal cancer are diagnosed per population of 100,000, and the mortality rate is 30-40 per 100,000 patients; and it is still increasing.

Cancer treatment, such as chemotherapy and radiation has associated risks, and it is important to optimally select patients most likely to benefit. Although there are several studies on prognostic markers for colorectal cancer (Non-patent literatures 1-7), they are not enough to identify patients with good prognoses for whom risky therapy would not be necessary.

CITATION LIST Non Patent Document

-   Non Patent Document 1: Science 314: 268-274 (2006) -   Non Patent Document 2: Science 318: 1108-1113 (2007) -   Non Patent Document 3: NEJM 344: 1196-1206 (2001) -   Non Patent Document 4: Clin. Cancer Res. 17: 1535-1545 (2011) -   Non Patent Document 5: J. Clin. Oncol. 29: 17-24 (2011) -   Non Patent Document 6: J. Clin. Oncol. 29: 1261-1270 (2011) -   Non Patent Document 7: J. Clin. Oncol. 29: 4620-4626 (2011)

Those references are herein incorporated by reference.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

In studying the mechanism of cancer metastasis, we demonstrate that Notch receptor cleavage initiates DAB1-ABL activation and causes Tyr-phosphorylaton of TRIO. Further, we found that phosphorylation of TRIO at Y2681 correlates with poor prognosis of CRC patients (FIG. 6A), and TRIO(pY2681) signals not only in the primary CRC but also in its metastasis and in many other types of cancer including breast and lung cancers (FIG. 12 and Table 2). Based on those findings, we arrive at the present invention.

In one embodiment, the present invention provides a method for determining prognosis of cancer in a subject, which comprises the step of detecting phosphorylation of the tyrosine residue at position 2681 of TRIO in a sample obtained from the subject, wherein absence of phosphorylation indicates good prognosis of cancer.

In another embodiment, the present invention provides an antibody which specifically binds to TRIO (pY2681).

In another embodiment, the present invention provides a diagnostic composition for determining prognosis of cancer which comprises the antibody of the invention.

In another embodiment, the present invention provides a kit for determining prognosis of cancer which comprises the antibody of the invention.

In another embodiment, the present invention provides a pharmaceutical composition comprising an ABL inhibitor for treating colorectal cancer.

In another embodiment, the present invention provides a pharmaceutical composition comprising an ABL inhibitor for preventing metastasis of cancer.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

FIG. 1. Notch Signaling Activates Rho in CRC Cells to Stimulate Invasion

(A and B) Rbpj gene knockout blocks invasion of intestinal tumors in Apc/Aes compound mutant mice. The depth of tumor invasion was analyzed histopathologically by H & E staining (A) and scored (B) in Apc/Aes double and Apc/Aes/Rbpj triple mutant mouse intestines. n=5 for each group. Dotted lines in (A) indicate the positions of muscularis mucosae. Asterisk in (A) shows a CRC gland invading into the submucosa. The depth of invasion in (B) is shown by abbreviations for intramucosal (Mu), and reaching to the submucosa (Sm), muscularis propria (MP) and serosa (Se). See Experimental Procedures for genotype abbreviation.

(C) Activation of Rho in the invading intestinal tumors of Apc/Aes mice. In a GTP-Rho pull-down assay, tissues of normal intestinal mucosa (N) and tumors (T) were analyzed from the Apc^(+/Δ716) control (Apc), and Apc/Aes mutant mice. The amounts of the total Rho protein are also shown.

(D) Suppression of Rho activation by Aes. Colon26 TetON-Aes-Flag cells were plated onto culture dishes coated with recombinant extracellular domain of DLL4 (rDLL4) and induced with Flag-tagged Aes (Aes-F) by doxycycline. The cell layers were harvested 16 hours after being scratched, and analyzed for GTP-Rho.

(E and F) Inhibition of Rho or Rock suppresses Matrigel invasion and transendothelial migration (TEM) of CRC cells in culture. RKO human CRC cells were assayed for Matrigel invasion (E) or TEM (F), in the presence of Rho inhibitor C3T or Rock inhibitor Y-27632 at two doses, respectively.

(G and H) Time-course of Rho activation through Notch receptor activation in human CRC cells with EDTA. RKO cells were treated with 10 mM EDTA for 2 minutes and cultured in standard culture media for the indicated time and assayed for GTP-Rho.

(I) Activation of Rho via Notch receptor activation by its ligand. RKO cells were plated on dishes coated with rDLL4, and harvested at indicated time points for GTP-Rho pull-down assay.

(J) Reduced Rho activation by knockdown of three Notch receptor paralogs in CRC cells. RKO cells were transfected with mixtures (#1 and #2 for each paralog) of siRNA for Notch1, 2 and 3 (siNotch1/2/3). Non-silencing siRNA (Ns) and no-transfection (−) were used as controls. Forty-eight hours after transfection, the cells were treated with or without 10 mM EDTA and analyzed for GTP-Rho.

(K) Suppression of Rho activation by γ-secretase inhibition of Notch receptor activation. RKO cells were treated with 10 μM of DAPT for 12 h, treated with 10 mM EDTA, and subjected to Rho pull-down assays.

Scale bars, 100 μm. Data are presented as the mean with SD. *p<0.01 and #p<0.05. For GTP-Rho pull-down assay, the amounts of the total Rho protein were also determined. See also FIG. S1.

FIG. 2. Both Rbpj-Dependent and -Independent Notch Signaling Is Critical for CRC Progression.

Early- (A-D) and late- (E-J) phase responses by Notch receptor activation.

(A) Notch and Rho are critical for attachment of CRC cells with endothelial cells (ECs). EGFP-expressing HCT116 cells were treated with or without C3T or DAPT for 2 hours, and plated onto a lung endothelial cell (LgEC) layer. Unbound HCT116 cells were washed off 15 minutes later, and numbers of cells remaining attached were counted by a fluorometer.

(B and C) Early-phase activation of Rho is independent of RBPJ. Stable clonal lines of HCT116 cells were established by transducing either two independent expression vectors for non-silencing control (Ns) or RBPJ-knockdown (shRBPJ) short hairpin RNA constructs (B). They were subjected to Rho pull-down assays after 2-min EDTA treatment (C).

(D) Attachment of CRC cells to ECs depends on γ-secretase activity even in the absence of RBPJ. RBPJ-knockdown or control cells described in (B) were treated with or without DAPT for 2 hours, and subjected to attachment assays as in (A).

(E) RBPJ is critical for late-phase activation of Rho. RBPJ-knockdown or control cells were treated with EDTA, and assayed at 6 or 12 hours for GTP-Rho.

(F) Rbpj target genes common to mouse and Drosophila. In mouse brain, 98 genes are regulated directly by Rbpj as determined by RNA-seq and chromatin immunoprecipitation (ChIP)-seq using anti-Rbpj Ab. In fruit fly, on the other hand, 55 genes are upregulated by Notch signaling, with their proximal regions bound by Su(H), the fly ortholog of mouse Rbpj. Shown are common 3 gene families commonly expressed between the two species through Rbpj; mouse and (fly) gene symbols.

(G) High-affinity binding motifs for the Notch transcription factor Su(H)/Rbpj/CBF1 found in the fly, mouse and human promoter regions for dab/Dab1/DAB1. The high- and low-affinity sequence motifs are shown by filled and open triangles, respectively. The primer pair for ChIP analysis (FIG. 2I, right) is indicated by a pair of horizontal triangles. TSS, transcription start site.

(H) Recombinant DLL4 (rDLL4) ligand induces DAB1 in cultured CRC cells. LS174T cells were incubated with or without 10 μM DAPT for 24 h, and plated on culture dishes pre-coated with or without rDLL4. Four-hours later, the DAB1 mRNA levels were quantified by quantitative (q) RT-PCR.

(I) RBPJ binding to the DAB1 promoter. ChIP of LS174T lysates with anti-Rbpj or anti-NICD Ab enriched the genomic promoter fragments for DAB1 gene as determined by qPCR.

(J) Dab1 is induced in Apc/Aes mouse CRC. Dab1 is stained with light grey whereas the nuclei are stained with dark grey in tumors of Apc and Apc/Aes mutant mice. Boxed areas are enlarged in the right panels. Same keys as in FIG. 1A. T, tumor. S, stroma.

Scale bars, 50 μm. Data are presented as the mean with SD. *p<0.01. See also FIG. 9.

FIG. 3. DAB1 Stimulates CRC Invasion and Metastasis through Rho Activation

(A and B) Dab1 is critical for progression of endogenous CRC. Intestinal epithelium-specific Dab1 null mutation was introduced to Apc/Aes double mutant mice to derive Apc/Aes/Dab1 triple mutant mice. Same methods and keys were employed as in FIGS. 1A and 1B.

(C, D and E) Knockdown of DAB1 inhibits metastasis of CRC transplants. DAB1-high LS174T cells were transduced with an expression vector encoding EGFP and an shRNA against DAB1 (shDAB1) (C). Two clonal lines were established and injected into the rectum of nude mice. Their lung metastases were evaluated under a fluorescent dissection microscope (D), and their numbers were scored (E).

(F, G and H) Expression of DAB1 stimulates CRC metastasis in vivo. DAB1-low RKO cells were transduced with an expression vectors for EGFP and DAB1 (F), and transplanted into the rectal mucosa of nude mice. Evaluation (G) and quantification (H) were performed as in (D) and (E), respectively.

(I) DAB1 is critical for both the early- and late-phase activation of Rho by Notch signaling. DAB1-knockdown or control clones were treated with 10 mM EDTA, and subjected to Rho pull-down assays at indicated times.

(J) Synergistic activation of Rho by Notch receptor cleavage and DAB1. DAB1-expressing RKO cells were treated or not with EDTA for 2 min, and subjected to Rho pull-down assays 5 minutes later.

(K) RBPJ-dependent induction of DAB1 after EDTA treatment. RBPJ-knockdown (shRBPJ; red) or control (Ns; black) HCT116 cells were treated with EDTA, and subjected to qRT-PCR assays for DAB1 mRNA at defined time.

Scale bars, 100 μm for (A) and 500 μm for (D) and (G). Data are presented as the mean with SD. *p<0.01 and #p<0.05.

FIG. 4. Tyrosine Phosphorylations of DAB1 and of ABL Itself are Essential for Rho Activation and Invasion of CRC Cells

(A and B) Imatinib suppresses invasion of endogenous CRC. The Apc/Aes compound mutant mice were treated with (red) or without (grey) 50 mg/kg/day imatinib for 9 weeks (n=5 each). Same methods and keys were employed as in FIGS. 1A and 1B.

(C) ABL knockdown in human CRC cells inhibits Matrigel invasion. RKO cells were transfected with two independent siRNA sets (#1 and #2) against ABL1 (siABL1), ABL2 (siABL2), or their combination, respectively. Forty-eight hours after transfection, expression of ABL1 and ABL2 was quantified by qRT-PCR (bottom). Simultaneously, cells were tested for Matrigel invasion (top).

(D) ABL knockdown reduces Rho activation triggered by Notch signaling. Two sets of combined knockdown were tested for inhibitory effects on Rho in RKO cells 5 minutes after EDTA treatment.

(E) ABL inhibitor imatinib blocks Matrigel invasion of CRC cells in a dose-dependent manner. RKO cells were treated with imatinib and tested for Matrigel invasion.

(F) Imatinib inhibits Rho activation induced by Notch receptor activation. RKO cells were treated with EDTA, either in the absence or presence of imatinib, and subjected to Rho pull-down assays 5 minutes later.

(G) DAB1 increases the Tyr-kinase activity of ABL in CRC cells. Lanes 1-3; HCT116 cells were expressed with equal amounts of Flag-tagged wild-type DAB1 (lane 2) or its 5YF mutant (lane 3), and their phospho-Tyr (pY) contents were determined by western blotting (WB) after immunoprecipitation (IP). Lanes 4-7; HCT116 cells were co-expressed with DAB1-Flag and HA-tagged wild-type (WT) ABL1B (ABL1B-HA). Note that the input amount of DAB1-Flag cDNA in lanes 6 and 7 was the same as that in lanes 2 and 3, respectively. Lanes 8-11; HCT116 cells were co-expressed with the same set of DAB1 cDNA in Lanes 4-7 and kinase-dead (KD) mutant of ABL1B.

Data are presented as the mean with SD. *p<0.01. See also FIG. 10.

FIG. 5. TRIO Is Tyr-phosphorylated in The Presence of ABL and DAB1, and Stimulates CRC Invasion

(A) Schematic representation of TRIO domain structure (modified from (Bateman, J. and Vactor, D. V., 2001, J. Cell Sci. 114:1973-1980) and phosphorylatable Tyr residues. Shown on top are domains of the wild-type human TRIO (TRIO WT) that contains 3097 aa. Rectangles show specific domains as indicated. Abbreviations: GEF, guanine nucleotide exchange factor domain; Ig, immunoglobulin-like domain; STK, serine-threonine kinase domain. Below the TRIO WT structure, the positions of Tyr (Y) to Phe (F) mutations are shown in red “F”. Star in the Ig domain indicates G2699 whose missense mutation to Val is found in human lung cancer (see FIGS. 7F and 7G).

(B and C) TRIO knockdown inhibits Rho activation and Matrigel invasion induced by Notch signaling in CRC cells. HCT116 cells were transfected with two independent siRNA constructs against TRIO mRNA (siTRIO #1 or 2) After 48-h incubation, the cells were treated with or without EDTA and assayed for GTP-Rho (B) and Matrigel invasion (C).

(D) TRIO is Tyr-phosphorylated in the presence of ABL and DAB1 in CRC cells. HCT116 cells were transduced with or without an expression construct for T7-tagged TRIO (T7-TRIO), co-transduced with or without HA-tagged ABL1B (ABL1B-HA) and/or Flag-tagged DAB1 (DAB1-Flag). Same keys were employed as in FIG. 4G.

(E) C-terminal half of TRIO is phosphorylated by ABL. WT or YF mutants of T7-TRIO were expressed simultaneously with or without ABL1B-HA and DAB1-Flag, followed by western blot analysis of pYs.

(F) Y1990 and Y2681 in TRIO are phosphorylated in the presence of ABL and DAB1. Note that the pY level was dramatically reduced in Y1990F and Y2681F mutants (lanes 2 and 4) as in 4YFs (lane 6).

Data are presented as the mean with SD. *p<0.01.

FIG. 6. Phosphorylation of TRIO(Y2681) in Human CRC Is Correlated with Poor Prognosis.

(A) TRIO(pY2681) is correlated with poor prognosis of CRC patients. Primary CRC specimens from 102 patients were examined for TRIO(pY2681) by immunohistochemistry followed by Kaplan-Meier analysis. (Left) When patients at all stages were combined, 32 cases were negative (−), whereas 70 cases were positive (+) for TRIO(pY2681) immunostaining. (−) vs. (+), p=0.01 in chi-square test. (Center) For patients of stages I and II combined, the TRIO(pY2681)-negative group showed 100% survival for 5 years, with the TRIO(pY2681)-positive group showing −20% death rate. (−) (n=23) vs. (+) (n=40), p=0.04 in chi-square test. (Right) Even only for stage II patients, the negative patients (n=13) had 100% survival compared with the positive patients (n=33) showing similar survival rate to those in stages I and II combined (p=0.1 in chi-square test).

(B) Stronger staining for TRIO(pY2681) in CRC cells (arrowheads) than in the adjacent normal mucosa (N) or lymphoid follicle (L). Boxed area is magnified in the inset.

(C, D and E) Staining for TRIO(pY2681) in CRC cells found in the invading stroma. Note that TRIO(Y2681) is highly phosphorylated in the budding (D) and dispersed (E) CRC cells (arrowheads).

Scale bars, 100 μm. See also FIG. 11.

FIG. 7. Phosphorylation of TRIO(Y2681) Stimulates RhoGEF Activity and Promotes Invasion of CRC Cells.

(A) Inverse correlation between nuclear AES and TRIO(pY2681) in human CRC. Shown are two representative sets of serial sections immunostained with anti-AES and anti-TRIO(pY2681) antibodies. Note that CRC glands expressing nuclear AES have few TRIO(pY2681) staining (arrows; top row), whereas TRIO(pY2681)-positive CRC glands lack AES expression (arrowheads; bottom row). Insets show higher magnification of boxed areas.

(B) Phosphorylation of Trio at Y2681 by loss of Aes in mouse intestinal tumors. Lysates of normal mucosa (N) and intestinal tumors (T) were analyzed for Trio(pY2681) by IP-WB. Total Trio blot is also shown (Trio).

(C) Stimulation of CRC invasion in Matrigel by TRIO(WT), but not TRIO(Y2681F). Clonal RKO TetON cell lines were constructed to express ABL1B-HA/DAB1-Flag simultaneously with T7-TRIO(WT) or T7-TRIO(Y2681F) in a doxycycline (Dox)-inducible manner, and assayed for protein expression and Matrigel invasion

(D) Cell-free RhoGEF GTP exchange assay. TRIO(WT) protein was expressed, immunoprecipitated and mixed with recombinant RhoA and mant-GTP that emits fluorescence when it was bound with Rho. A representative result of three assays.

(E) TRIO(pY2681) is critical for the RhoGEF activity. T7-tagged TRIO (WT or Y2681F) was purified, and its RhoGEF activity for 10 min was determined. TRIO[ima]; TRIO protein purified from imatinib-treated HEK293T cells.

(F) TRIO(G2699V) stimulates RhoGEF activity. WT and G2699V mutant TRIO were purified and assayed for its RhoGEF activity as in (E).

(G) TRIO(G2699V) is more susceptible to Tyr-phosphorylation at Y2681. WT or G2699V T7-TRIO was expressed simultaneously with or without ABL1B-HA and DAB1-Flag. The pY content in TRIO was analyzed by IP-WB.

Scale bars, 10 μm. Data are presented as the mean with SD. *p<0.01 and #p<0.05. See also FIG. 12.

FIG. 8. Notch Signaling Activates Rho in CRC Cells to Stimulate Invasion (addendum to FIG. 1.)

(A) Little effect of Rac inhibition on CRC invasion through Matrigel. RKO cells were treated with various concentrations of Rac inhibitor NSC27366 before and during the assay.

(B) Notch receptor activation by EDTA treatment. After 5 min treatment with 10 mM EDTA, Notch1 and NICD were precipitated by and detected with anti-Notch1 (C-term) antibody. Note that treatment with γ-secretase inhibitor DAPT inhibited the cleavage.

(C) Activation of Rho in response to EDTA treatment of Colon26 mouse CRC cells. Active Rho was pulled-down at the indicated time points of EDTA treatment. Total Rho was also analyzed.

FIG. 9. Both Rbpj-Dependent and -Independent Notch Signaling Is Critical for CRC Progression (addendum to FIG. 2.)

Expression of DAB1 in human colonic cells. The amount of DAB1 mRNA was quantified by real-time PCR.

FIG. 10. Tyrosine Phosphorylations of Dab1 and of Abl Itself are Essential for Rho Activation and Invasion of CRC Cells (addendum to FIG. 4.)

(A) SRC inhibitor PP2 (at 10 μm) has only a minor effect on Matrigel invasion, whereas SRC-ABL dual inhibitor dasatinib (at 0.01 μm) shows a tight suppression of HCT116 cell invasion in Matrigel. *p<0.01, #p<0.04.

(B) Dab 1 interacts with Abl in intestinal tumors in Apc/Aes mice. Immunoprecipitates from tumor lysates were resolved and detected by western blotting using anti-Abl and anti-Dab1 antibodies.

FIG. 11. Phosphorylation of Trio(Y2681) in Human CRC Is Correlated with Poor Prognosis (addendum to FIG. 6.)

Validation of specific antibodies for Tyr-phosphorylated TRIO. Antibodies were generated by immunizing rabbits with synthetic peptides containing pY1990 or pY2681, affinity-purified and used for immunocytochemistry. HEK 293T cells were transfected with expression plasmids for T7-tagged wild-type (WT), Y1990F or Y2681F TRIO simultaneously with those for ABL1B and DAB1. Note that anti-TRIO(pY1990) and anti-TRIO(pY2681) cannot recognize unphosphorylatable TRIO(Y1990F) and TRIO(Y2681F) mutants, respectively, as determined by immunofluorescence (data not shown) or western analyses. For western analysis, TRIO(4YFs) mutant was used as a negative control for Tyr-phosphorylation (lane 5).

FIG. 12. Phosphorylation of Trio(Y2681) Stimulates RhoGEF Activity and Promotes Invasion of CRC Cells (addendum to FIG. 7.)

(A and B) Rectal adenocarcinoma (A) and its metastasis to the lung (B) immunostained with anti-TRIO(pY2681) antibody. Note that the metastatic cancer cells contained more abundant TRIO(pY2681) signals than its primary tumor.

(C and D) Colonic adenocarcinoma (C) and its metastasis to the ovary (D) immunostained with anti-TRIO(pY2681) antibody. Note that the metastatic cancer cells retain TRIO(pY2681) as in the primary tumor.

(E and F) TRIO(pY2681) immnohistochemistry of esophageal squamous cell carcinoma (E) and gastric adenocacinoma (F). Note cancer cells with strong TRIO(pY2681) staining (arrowheads).

Squared areas are enlarged in the insets. Mx, metastasis. Scale bars, 100 μm.

FIG. 13. Phosphorylation of Trio(Y2681) in human CRC is correlated with poorer prognosis.

Kaplan-Meier analysis of disease-specific survival regarding Trio(pY2681) of primary CRC specimens. (A) When patients of all stages were combined (n=339), 150 cases were Trio(pY2681)-low, whereas 189 were Trio(pY2681)-high (P<0.001 in log-rank test). (B) Stage II subpopulation (n=115) with the Trio(pY2681)-low (n=45) and -high (n=70) patients (P=0.015). (C) Stage IV subpopulation (n=57) with the Trio(pY2681)-low (n=11) and -high patients (n=46) (P=0.006).

FIG. 14. Phosphorylation of Trio(Y2681) in human lung adenocarcinoma is correlated with poorer prognosis.

Kaplan-Meier analysis of disease-specific survival regarding Trio(pY2681) of primary lung adenocarcinoma specimens. Patients of all stages were combined (n=214), 143 cases were Trio(pY2681)-low, whereas 71 were Trio(pY2681)-high (P=0.002 in log-rank test).

FIG. 15. Phosphorylation of Trio(Y2681) in human gastric cancer is correlated with poorer prognosis.

Kaplan-Meier analysis of disease-specific survival regarding Trio(pY2681) of primary gastric cancer specimens. Patients of stages I-III were combined (n=172), 82 cases were Trio(pY2681)-low, whereas 90 were Trio(pY2681)-high (P<0.001 in log-rank test).

FIG. 16. Phosphorylation of Trio(Y2681) in human pancreatic cancer is correlated with poorer prognosis.

Preliminary Kaplan-Meier analysis of disease-specific survival regarding Trio(pY2681) and Smad4 of primary pancreatic cancer specimens. Patients of all stages were combined (n=20), (ID=0.063 and 0.064, respectively in log-rank test). Although both Trio(pY2681) and Smad4 showed almost the same P value here, they are statistically unrelated (P=0.51), suggesting independent each other.

DESCRIPTION OF EMBODIMENTS

As used herein, “TRIO” refers to all mammalian species of native TRIO, including human TRIO. The term “native TRIO” encompasses naturally occurring variants, e.g., alternatively spliced variants and allelic variants, of TRIO. As used herein, “a tyrosine residue at position 2681 of TRIO” refers to a tyrosine residue in a native TRIO corresponding to the tyrosine residue at position 2681 of SEQ ID NO: 1, which might not be at position 2681 in the native TRIO. As used herein, “TRIO (pY2681)” refers to TRIO of which tyrosine residue corresponding to the tyrosine residue at position 2681 of SEQ ID NO: 1 is phospholyrated.

As used herein, prognosis of cancer includes prediction of duration of survival, duration of recurrence-free survival, duration of progression free survival, and likelihood of metastasis of a subject susceptible to or diagnosed with a cancer. In a preferred embodiment, prognosis of cancer is the duration of survival of a subject after surgical resection of the primary tumor.

As used herein, the term “subject” and “patient” includes, but not limited to, humans, monkeys, rabbits, chickens, and mice. In a preferred embodiment, a subject or patient is human. In a preferred embodiment, a subject or patient is a human cancer patient who has been received surgical resection of the primary tumor.

A “sample” encompasses a variety of sample types obtained from a subject and includes solid tissue samples or tissue cultures or cells derived therefrom. The sample can be obtained by a variety of procedures known in the art including, but not limited to surgical excision, aspiration or biopsy and may be fresh or frozen. The term “sample” also includes samples that have been manipulated in any way after their procurement, such as by treatment with reagents, solubilization, or enrichment for certain components, such as proteins or polynucleotides, or embedding in a semi-solid or solid matrix for sectioning purposes. In a preferred embodiment, the sample is obtained from a cancerous tissue of a subject upon surgery for tumor removal. The cancerous tissue may be derived from endoscopically resected polyps, or surgically resected primary or metastatic tumor. Preferably, the cancerous tissue is obtained from the primary tumor by surgical resection.

As shown in the following examples, phosphorylation of a tyrosine residue at position 2681 of TRIO is involved in metastasis of cancer, and TRIO(pY2681) is detected not only in colorectal cancer but also in other cancers (FIGS. 7 and 12 and Table 2). Therefore, the method of invention may be applied to various cancers. Examples of cancer include colorectal cancer including rectal cancer and colonic cancer; cancers of the following organs: adrenal gland, blood (lymphoma), bone, brain, breast, colorectum, endometrium, esophagus, gallbladder, kidney, larynx, liver, lung, oral cavity, ovary, pancreas, prostate, salivary gland, skin, small intestine (GIST), soft tissue, stomach, testis, thyroid, urinary bladder, uterine cervix; squamous cell cancer, uterine cancer, melanoma, multiple myeloma and B-cell lymphoma, head and neck cancer, glioblastoma, and associated metastases. In an embodiment, the cancer is selected from the group consisting of colorectal cancer, breast cancer, lung cancer, pancreas cancer, and gastric cancer. In a preferred embodiment, the cancer is selected from the group consisting of colorectal cancer, breast cancer, lung cancer, and gastric cancer. In a more preferred embodiment, the cancer is selected from the group consisting of colorectal cancer and gastric cancer. In a still more preferred embodiment, the cancer is colorectal cancer.

Colorectal cancer (also referred to as CRC) is staged based on how far the cancer has grown into the wall of the intestine, whether or not it has reached nearby structures, and whether or not it has spread to the lymph nodes or distant organs (Table 1).

TABLE 1 Colorectal cancer staging Stage 0 Stage 0 (colon carcinoma in situ). Abnormal cells are shown in the mucosa of the colon wall. I Stage I colon cancer. Cancer has spread from the mucosa of the colon wall to the muscle layer. II Stage II colon cancer. In stage IIA, cancer has spread through the muscle layer of the colon wall to the serosa. In stage IIB, cancer has spread through the serosa but has not spread to nearby organs. In stage IIC, cancer has spread through the serosa to nearby organs. III Stage IIIA colon cancer. Cancer may have spread through the mucosa of the colon wall to the submucosa and muscle layer, and has spread to one to three nearby lymph nodes or tissues near the lymph nodes. OR, cancer has spread through the mucosa to the submucosa and four to six nearby lymph nodes. Stage IIIB colon cancer. Cancer has spread through the muscle layer of the colon wall to the serosa or has spread through the serosa but not to nearby organs; cancer has spread to one to three nearby lymph nodes or to tissues near the lymph nodes. OR, cancer has spread to the muscle layer or to the serosa, and to four to six nearby lymph nodes. OR, cancer has spread through the mucosa to the submucosa and may have spread to the muscle layer; cancer has spread to seven or more nearby lymph nodes. Stage IIIC colon cancer. Cancer has spread through the serosa of the colon wall but not to nearby organs; cancer has spread to four to six nearby lymph nodes. OR, cancer has spread through the muscle layer to the serosa or has spread through the serosa but not to nearby organs; cancer has spread to seven or more nearby lymph nodes. OR, cancer has spread through the serosa to nearby organs and to one or more nearby lymph nodes or to tissues near the lymph nodes. IV Stage IV colon cancer. The cancer has spread through the blood and lymph nodes to other parts of the body, such as the lung, liver, abdominal wall, or ovary. (http://www.cancer.gov/cancertopics/pdq/treatment/colon/Patient/page2)

As shown in the following examples, two subpopulations in stages I and II CRC patients can be further distinguished using the TRIO(pY2681) staining. Namely, those who had negative pY2681 showed 100% cure (no recurrence at all), whereas those with pY2681-positive primary tumors had ˜20% recurrence in 5 years (FIG. 6A, FIG. 13B). Therefore, for the stage I and II patients who are not subjected to adjuvant chemotherapy according to the current guideline, the method of invention can identify patients who should be considered for further treatment with adjuvant therapy after surgery. For the stage III and IV patients, the method of invention can help stratify higher-risk subpopulations. Accordingly, the method of the invention may be used for a subject diagnosed with colorectal cancer at any of the stages I-IV, and particularly useful for a subject diagnosed with colorectal cancer at stage I or II, in particular stage II.

Phosphorylation of a tyrosine residue at position 2681 of TRIO may be detected by an anti-TRIO (pY2681) antibody. As used herein, “an anti-TRIO (pY2681) antibody” refers to an antibody which specifically binds to TRIO (pY2681). The antibody “which specifically binds to TRIO (pY2681)” refers to an antibody which binds to TRIO (pY2681) but does not bind to TRIO of which tyrosine residue at position 2681 is not phospholyrated (also referred to as “unphosphorylated TRIO(Y2681)” herein).

Phosphorylation can be detected by a number of methods which are well-known in the art, including immunohistochemistry assays, ELISA (Enzyme-linked, immunosorbent assay), and Western analysis. In a preferred embodiment, immunohistochemistry assays are used.

In one embodiment, a sample is a tissue sample obtained from surgical excision and fixed and embedded in paraffin or the like. The tissue sample may be fixed by conventional methodology (“Manual of Histological Staining Method of the Armed Forces Institute of Pathology,” 3rd edition (1960) Lee G. Luna, H T (ASCP) Editor, The Blakston Division McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York; The Armed Forces Institute of Pathology Advanced Laboratory Methods in Histology and Pathology (1994) Ulreka V. Mikel, Editor, Armed Forces Institute of Pathology, American Registry of Pathology, Washington, D.C.; those references are herein incorporated by reference). For example, neutral buffered formalin, Bouin's or paraformaldehyde, may be used to fix a sample. Generally, the sample is first fixed and is then dehydrated through an ascending series of alcohols, infiltrated and embedded with paraffin or other sectioning media so that the tissue sample may be sectioned. Alternatively, one may section the frozen tissue and fix the sections obtained. In a preferred embodiment, a tissue sample may be embedded and processed in paraffin by conventional methodology. Once the tissue sample is embedded, the sample may be sectioned by a microtome or the like. Sections may range from about three microns to about five microns in thickness. Once sectioned, the sections may be attached to slides by several standard methods. Examples of slide adhesives include, but are not limited to, silane, gelatin, poly-L-lysine and the like. For example, the paraffin embedded sections may be attached to positively charged slides and/or slides coated with poly-L-lysine. If paraffin has been used as the embedding material, the tissue sections are generally deparaffinized and rehydrated to water. The tissue sections may be deparaffinized by several conventional standard methodologies. For example, xylenes and a gradually descending series of alcohols may be used. Alternatively, commercially available deparaffinizing nonorganic agents such as Hemo-De7 (CMS, Houston, Tex.) may be used.

Following a blocking step, the tissue section is exposed to an antibody which specifically binds to the target antigen (i.e., TRIO (pY2861)) for a sufficient period of time and under suitable conditions such that the antibody binds to the target antigen in the tissue sample. Appropriate conditions for achieving this can be determined by routine experimentation. The antibody may be labeled with a radioisotope, a fluorescent label, or an enzymatic label to visualize the target antigen without further antibody interaction. Alternatively, the antibody which specifically binds to the target antigen may be used as a primary antibody together with a labeled secondary antibody which binds to the primary antibody.

To detect Trio(pY2681) in cancer tissues, one can use cellular ELISA (CELISA), a modification of ELISA. CELISAs can be performed in 96-well plates, which permits high throughput results. The bottom of each well is attached with a tissue section that is then permeabilized with a detergent. The sample is then incubated in the well with the Trio(pY2681) antibody. After unbound antibody is washed off, the bound primary antibody is then bound with enzyme-linked secondary antibody, and the unbound antibody is washed off again. Then the amount of the specifically bound secondary antibody will be measured by the activity of coupled enzyme reactions. (e.g., Schlosser, M. et al., J. Immunol. Methods, 140: 101-109, 1991, herein incorporated by reference).

Phosphorylation of a tyrosine residue at position 2681 of TRIO in a sample obtained from a subject may be detected by comparing the sample with a suitable control sample. Exemplary control samples include a negative control sample (e.g. a non-cancerous tissue from a heath subject or a cancerous tissue from a cancer patient with good prognosis) or a positive control sample (e.g. a cancerous tissue from a cancer patient with poor prognosis).

As used herein, absence of phosphorylation refers to insignificant level of phosphorylation compared to that observed for a negative control sample. To the contrary, presence of phosphorylation refers to significant level of phosphorylation compared to that observed for a negative control sample. In the present invention, absence of phosphorylation indicates good prognosis of cancer. In one embodiment, absence of phosphorylation indicates likelihood of long survival after surgical resection of the primary tumor. In another embodiment, absence of phosphorylation indicates likelihood of no recurrence within 5 years after surgical resection of the primary tumor. In another embodiment, absence of phosphorylation indicates unnecessity of adjuvant therapy after surgical resection of the primary tumor. In another embodiment, presence of phosphorylation indicates necessity of adjuvant therapy after surgical resection of the primary tumor. Adjuvant therapy includes chemotherapy, radiation therapy, hormone therapy, targeted therapy, and biological therapy, and is preferably chemotherapy. In a preferred embodiment, adjuvant therapy is chemotherapy with an ABL kinase inhibitor such as imatinib in view of prevention of metastasis.

In a different embodiment, the prevent invention provides an ABL kinase inhibitor such as imatinib for use in the adjuvant therapy after surgical resection of the primary tumor in a subject. Preferably, the subject is a human patient with colorectal cancer.

As used herein, the term “antibody” includes polyclonal antibodies, monoclonal antibodies, and antibody fragments. The “antibody” may be those raised in rodents (mouse, rat, hamster, guinea pig, rabbit etc.), birds (chicken, quail, turkey etc.), large mammals (goat, sheep, donkey etc.), human antibodies, chimeric antibodies, and humanized antibodies.

An anti-TRIO (pY2681) antibody may be prepared using a peptide derived from TRIO having an amino acid sequence comprising the phosphorylated tyrosine at position 2681 as an immunizing antigen. The length of the peptide is not specifically limited and may be 5-30 amino acids, preferably 5-20 amino acids, more preferably 8-15 amino acids. In a preferred embodiment, the peptide has the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO: 9.

A polyclonal antibody may be prepared by a conventional method, for example, a method described in “Antibodies: A Laboratory Manual”, Lane, H. D. et al. eds., Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press, New York, 1989, herein incorporated by reference. In brief, a polyclonal antibody may be prepared by immunizing an animal, such as mouse, rat, hamster, guinea pig, rabbit, chicken, quail, turkey, goat, sheep, or donkey, with the peptide derived from TRIO as described above.

A monoclonal antibody may be prepared by the hybridoma method first described by Kohler et al., Nature 256:495 (1975), herein incorporated by reference, or may be made by recombinant DNA methods (U.S. Pat. No. 4,816,567, herein incorporated by reference). A monoclonal antibody may also be isolated from phage antibody libraries using the techniques described in Clarkson et al., Nature 352:624-628 (1991), herein incorporated by reference, or Marks et al., J. Mol. Biol. 222:581-597 (1991), herein incorporated by reference, for example.

A chimeric antibody is an antibody comprising the variable regions on the heavy chain and the light chain of an antibody from a mammal other than human, such as mouse, and the constant regions on the heavy chain and light chain from a human antibody. A chimeric antibody may be obtained by ligating the DNA coding for the variable region of the mouse antibody and the DNA coding for the constant region of the human antibody, and incorporating into an expression vector, and introducing a host for antibody production.

A humanized antibody is composed of the complementarity determining region (CDR) of an antibody derived a non-human mammal, and the framework region (FR) and the constant region derived from a human antibody. A humanized antibody may be obtained by grafting the CDR of an antibody from a non-human mammal, such as a mouse, into the CDR of a human antibody. Specifically, a DNA sequence designed to ligate a mouse antibody CDR to the FR of human antibody is synthesized by PCR using as primers several oligonucleotides constructed to have overlapping portions at the ends of both CDR and FR. The obtained DNA is ligated with the DNA coding for the constant region of the human antibody, then incorporated into an expression vector, which is introduced into and expressed by a host to obtain the antibody (European Patent EP 239400; International Publication WO 96/02576; those references are herein incorporated by reference).

A method for obtaining a human antibody is also known. For instance, a human lymphocyte is sensitized with a desired antigen or a cell expressing the desired antigen in vitro, and sensitized lymphocyte is fused with a human myeloma cell, for instance U266, to obtain the desired human antibody capable of binding to the antigen (Japanese Patent Publication No. H1-59878, herein incorporated by reference). Alternatively, a transgenic animal having the entirety of the repertoire of human antibody genes may be immunized with the desired antigen to obtain the desired human antibody (International Publication WO 93/12227, WO 92/03918, WO 94/02602, WO 94/25585, WO 96/34096 and WO 96/33735; those references are herein incorporated by reference). Further, a technique where a human antibody is selected by panning from a human antibody library is also known. For instance, the variable region of the human antibody is expressed as a single chain antibody (scFv) on the surface of a phage by the phage display method, and a phage binding to the antigen is selected. The gene of the selected phage is analyzed to determine the sequence of the DNA coding for the variable region of the human antibody binding to the antigen. Once the DNA sequence of the scFv binding to the antigen is determined, a suitable expression vector containing the sequence can be prepared to produce the human antibody. These methods are well known, and described in International Publication WO 92/01047, WO 92/20791, WO 93/06213, WO 93/11236, WO 93/19172, WO 95/01438 and WO 95/15388 (those references are herein incorporated by reference).

Examples of an antibody fragment include Fab, F(ab′)2, Fv, Fab/c having one Fab and a full Fc, and a single chain Fv (scFv) where the Fv of the H chain and the L chain are linked via an appropriate linker. An antibody fragment may be obtained by treating an antibody with an enzyme such as papain or pepsin. Alternatively, a gene encoding such an antibody fragment is constructed and introduced into an expression vector, and the antibody fragment is expressed in a suitable host cell (see, for example, Co, M. S. et al., J. Immunol. (1994) 152, 2968-2976, Better, M. & Horwitz, A. H. Methods in Enzymology (1989) 178, 476-496, Academic Press, Inc., Plueckthun, A. & Skerra, A. Methods in Enzymology (1989) 178, 476-496, Academic Press, Inc., Lamoyi, E., Methods in Enzymology (1989) 121, 652-663, Rousseaux, J. et al., Methods in Enzymology (1989) 121, 663-669, Bird, R. E. et al., TIBTECH (1991) 9, 132-137; those references are herein incorporated by reference).

As used herein, the “antibody” includes an antibody modified with any of a variety of molecules such as radioisotopes, fluorescent labels, and enzymatic labels. Examples of radioisotopes includes ³⁵S, ¹⁴C, ¹²⁵I, ³H, and ¹³¹I. Examples of enzymatic labels include luciferase, luciferin, peroxidase such as horseradish peroxidase, alkaline phosphatase, β-galactosidase, and the like. Examples of fluorescent labels include Texas Red, rhodamine, fluorescein, dansyl, Lissamine, umbelliferone, phycocrytherin, phycocyanin, or commercially available fluorophores such SPECTRUM ORANGE7 and SPECTRUM GREEN7 and/or derivatives of any one or more of the above, or fluorescent dyes as AlexaFluor, Cy3, Cy5. The antibody can be labeled with a radioisotope, a fluorescent label or an enzymatic label using conventional methodologies (Current Protocols in Immunology, Volumes 1 and 2, Coligen et al, Ed. Wiley-Interscience, New York, N.Y., Pubs. (1991); Methods in Enzym., 73:147-166 (1981); those references are herein incorporated by reference).

In an embodiment, the present invention provides a diagnostic composition for determining prognosis of cancer which comprises the antibody of the present invention. The diagnostic composition of the invention is used in accordance with the method of the invention. The diagnostic composition may be provided with instructions for use in accordance with the method of the invention described herein.

In an embodiment, the present invention provides a kit for determining prognosis of cancer which comprises the antibody of the present invention. The kit of the invention is used in accordance with the method of the invention. The kit may be the one used for immunohistochemistry assays, Western analysis, or ELISA. The kit may comprise other optional components such as one or more buffers (e.g., block buffer, wash buffer, substrate buffer, etc), other reagents such as substrate (e.g., chromogen) which is chemically altered by an enzymatic label, and control samples (positive and/or negative controls) as well as instructions for use in accordance with the method of the invention described herein.

In an embodiment, the present invention provides a pharmaceutical composition comprising an ABL inhibitor for treating colorectal cancer.

In another embodiment, the present invention provides a pharmaceutical composition comprising an ABL inhibitor for preventing metastasis of cancer. The metastasis includes micrometastasis. Examples of cancer include colorectal cancer including rectal cancer and colonic cancer; cancers of the following organs: adrenal gland, blood (lymphoma), bone, brain, breast, colorectum, endometrium, esophagus, gallbladder, kidney, larynx, liver, lung, oral cavity, ovary, pancreas, prostate, salivary gland, skin, small intestine (GIST), soft tissue, stomach, testis, thyroid, urinary bladder, uterine cervix; squamous cell cancer, uterine cancer, melanoma, multiple myeloma and B-cell lymphoma, head and neck cancer, glioblastoma, and associated metastases. In an embodiment, the cancer is selected from the group consisting of colorectal cancer, breast cancer, lung cancer, pancreas cancer, and gastric cancer. In a preferred embodiment, the cancer is selected from the group consisting of colorectal cancer, breast cancer, lung cancer, and gastric cancer. In a more preferred embodiment, the cancer is selected from the group consisting of colorectal cancer and gastric cancer. In a still more preferred embodiment, the cancer is colorectal cancer.

Examples of an ABL inhibitor includes imatinib (4-(4-methylpiperazin-1-ylmethyl)-N-[4-methyl-3-(4-(pyridin-3-yl)-pyrimidin-2-ylamino-)phenyl]-benzamide), nilotinib (4-methyl-N-[3-(4-methyl-1H-imidazol-1-yl)-5-(trifluoromethyl)phenyl]-3-[(4-pyridin-3-ylpyrimidin-2-yl)amino]benzamide), ponatinib (3-(2-imidazo[1,2-b]pyridazin-3-ylethynyl)-4-methyl-N-[4-[(4-methylpiperazin-1-yl)methyl]-3-(trifluoromethyl)phenyl]benzamide), dasatinib (N-(2-chloro-6-methylphenyl)-2-[[6-[4-(2-hydroxyethyl)-1-piperazinyl]-2-methyl-4-pyrimidinyl]amino]-5-thiazole carboxamide monohydrate), bosutinib (4-[(2,4-dichloro-5-methoxyphenyl)amino]-6-methoxy-7-[3-(4-methylpiperazin-1-yl)propoxy]quinoline-3-carbonitrile), and befatinib (INNO-406) (N-[3-([5,5′-bipyrimidin]-2-ylamino)-4-methylphenyl]-4-[[(3S)-3-(dimethylamino)-1-pyrrolidinyl]methyl]-3-(trifluoromethyl)benzamide) or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof. In a preferred embodiment, the ABL inhibitor is imatinib or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof.

Pharmaceutical acceptable salts of imatinib includes pharmaceutical acceptable acid addition salts, like for example with inorganic acids, such as hydrochloric acid, sulfuric acid or a phosphoric acid, or with suitable organic carboxylic or sulfonic acids, for example aliphatic mono- or di-carboxylic acids, such as trifluoroacetic acid, acetic acid, propionic acid, glycolic acid, succinic acid, maleic acid, fumaric acid, hydroxymaleic acid, malic acid, tartaric acid, citric acid or oxalic acid, or amino acids such as arginine or lysine, aromatic carboxylic acids, such as benzoic acid, 2-phenoxy-benzoic acid, 2-acetoxy-benzoic acid, salicylic acid, or 4-aminosalicylic acid, aromatic-aliphatic carboxylic acids, such as mandelic acid or cinnamic acid, heteroaromatic carboxylic acids, such as nicotinic acid or isonicotinic acid, aliphatic sulfonic acids, such as methane-, ethane- or 2-hydroxyethane-sulfonic acid, or aromatic sulfonic acids, for example benzene-, p-toluene- or naphthalene-2-sulfonic acid. In a preferred embodiment, a monomethanesulfonic acid addition salt of imatinib, i.e., imatinib mesylate, disclosed in WO99/03854 (herein incorporated by reference) is used.

The ABL inhibitor is administered to a subject in a daily dose depending on species, age, individual condition, mode of administration, and the clinical picture in question. For example, the ABL inhibitor may be administered to a human adult in a daily dose of about 100-1000 mg, preferably about 200-600 mg, more preferably about 400-600, especially about 400 mg.

In a preferred embodiment, the pharmaceutical composition of the invention is used in an adjuvant therapy. Preferably, the adjuvant therapy is treatment after surgical resection of the primary tumor in the patient.

The present invention provides a method for treating colorectal cancer, which comprises administering an ABL inhibitor to a patient in need thereof, and a method for preventing metastasis of cancer, which comprises administering an ABL inhibitor to a patient in need thereof. Also, the present invention provides use of an ABL inhibitor for the manufacture of a medicament for treating colorectal cancer, and use of an ABL inhibitor for the manufacture of a medicament for preventing metastasis of cancer. The method and use of the invention can be carried out as explained for the pharmaceutical composition of the invention.

The invention is further described in the following examples, none of which are intended to limit the scope of the invention.

EXAMPLES Experimental Procedures Mutant Mice, CRC Cells and Intra-Rectum Transplantation

Apc^(+/Δ716) mutant mice were generated and maintained as described previously {Oshima, 1995}. Apc^(+/Δ716)Aes^(Floxed/Floxed)vCre^(ERT2) (abbreviated as Apc/Aes) mice were constructed as reported to knockout Aes in Apc^(+/Δ716) mice by virtue of Cre^(ERT2) whose expression is driven by intestinal epithelium-specific villin promoter {Sonoshita, 2011}. Rbpj floxed allele was constructed as reported {Han, 2002}, obtained from RIKEN BRC, and crossed with Apc/Aes mice to derive Apc^(+/Δ716)Aes^(Floxed/Floxed)Rbpj^(Floxed/Floxed)vCre^(ERT2) (Apc/Aes/Rbpj) mice. Dab1 floxed allele was constructed (Imai et al., in preparation) and crossed with Apc/Aes mice to obtain Apc^(+/Δ716)Aes^(Floxed/Floxed)Dab1^(Floxed/Floxed)vCre^(ERT2) (Apc/Aes/Dab1) mice. Tumor histopathology in compound mutant mice was analyzed at 12 weeks of age. For ABL inhibition, Apc/Aes mice were treated with imatinib (LC Laboratories) for 9 weeks since they were 3 weeks of age at a dose of 50 mg/kg/day (i.p.) that suppresses the tumorigenic activity of BCR-ABL-transformed cell lines in transplanted mice {Buchdunger, 2001}. Total of ˜100 tumors with diameters larger than 2 mm from 5 mice were scored for each mutant genotype. CRC cell lines were obtained from ATCC. Upon transplantation into the rectal smooth muscle, CRC cells formed a visible primary tumor within a week. Six weeks later, mice were euthanized and examined for metastatic foci under a fluorescent microscope (Leica). All animal experiments were conducted according to the protocol approved by the Animal Care and Use Committee of Kyoto University.

Active Rho Pull-Down Assay

GTP-Rho was pulled-down and detected by using Rho activation assay kit (Thermo) according to the manufacturers' protocol. Briefly, tissues or CRC cells were lysed with lysis buffer, and GTP-Rho in the lysates was pulled-down using Rhotekin and detected by anti-Rho antibody in western analysis.

rDLL4 Experiments

Recombinant DLL4 (rDLL4) (R&D) was resuspended with PBS. For scratch and GTP-Rho pull-down assays, 1 μg was put into 6-well culture plate to coat its surface with rDLL4 at 0.1 μg/cm². For q-RT-PCR assays, the plate surface was coated with rDLL4 at 0.1-1 μg/cm². After overnight incubation at 4-degree, the plates were washed once with PBS and plated with CRC cells. For expression analysis of HES1 and DAB1, cells were lysed and mRNA was extracted after four hours.

Scratch Assay

Colon26 TetON-Aes-Flag cells were constructed as described so that expression of Flag-tagged Aes is induced by doxycycline (Sonoshita et al., 2011). The cells were plated on culture dishes coated with rDLL4, cultured until they became subconfluent, and treated with doxycycline for 16 h prior to scratch. Four hours after making scratches, cells were harvested pull-down assays for active Rho.

Matrigel Invasion and TEM Assays

Cultured cancer cells were treated with C3T (Cytoskeleton), Y-27632 (Wako), NSC27366, PP2 (Calbiochem), imatinib or dasatinib (LC Laboratories) for 16 h prior to Matrigel invasion and TEM assays. Matrigel invasion assays were performed as previously described using Matrigel (BD) {Sonoshita, 2011}. For TEM assay, human umbilical vein endothelial cell (HUVEC) was seeded in the upper chamber of Transwell (Corning). One day (24 h) later, EGFP-labeled CRC cells were plated onto the layer of HUVEC. After 24 h, CRC cells migrated to the lower side of the membrane were counted under a fluorescent microscope.

Notch Receptor Activation by EDTA

Cultured CRC cells were washed with PBS, treated with 10 mM EDTA in PBS for 2 minutes, and incubated again in culture media. This treatment has been shown to activate Notch receptors by promoting shedding of the Notch ectodomain (Rand et al., 2000; Tiyanont et al., 2011). After incubation for defined period, cells were lysed and cleaved Notch and GTP-Rho was detected. DAPT (Calbiochem) were applied to cultured CRC cells to inhibit its γ-secretase activity.

Knockdown Experiments

siRNA oligos (QIAGEN) were transfected into CRC cells by using HiperFect transfection reagent (QIAGEN). Forty-eight hours after the transfection, cells were subjected to Matrigel invasion, GTP-Rho pull-down, or gene expression assays. For transplantation experiments, knockdown sequences for DAB1 (shDAB1#1: AAGGATTAAGTAGGATGTCAA (SEQ ID NO: 2), shDAB1#2: CCGGTACAAAGCCAAATTGAT (SEQ ID NO: 3)) were inserted into pLB vectors (Addgene), respectively. Then lentiviral particles were prepared and infected into LS174T cells to derive constitutive DAB1-knockdown EGFP⁺ cells. Stable knockdown clones for RBPJ were derived as described previously (Sonoshita et al., 2011).

Attachment Assay

Attachment assay was performed according to the established protocol {Reymond, 2012}. Briefly, human lung endothelial cells were plated onto collagen-coated dish. After they reached confluent to form a layer, EGFP-labeled CRC cells were plated onto it. Fifteen minutes later, floating cells were washed with PBS, and the numbers of CRC cells adhering to the endothelial layer were counted under a fluorescent microscope.

Dab/Dab1/DAB1 Promoter Analysis

Fly dab, mouse Dab1, and human DAB1 promoters were extracted from UCSC Genome Browser Database (http://genome.ucsc.edu/cgi-bin/hgGateway). The plot analysis for high- and low-affinity Su(H)/Rbpj binding sites was performed by a text-based search as described previously (Nellesen et al., 1999).

Quantitative PCR (q-PCR)

TaqMan primers/probes for quantification of HES1, DAB1, ABL1, and ABL2 mRNAs were purchased from ABI. ChIP analyses were performed by using CRC cells and anti-Rbpj (Institute of Immunology) and anti-NICD (Cell Signaling Technology) antibodies according to published protocol (Kakizaki et al., 2010). Precipitated fragments of genomic DNA were tested for enrichment of promoter regions of HES1 gene by SYBR green (ABI) using hHES1ChIP.F (CGTGTCTCCTCCTCCCATT) (SEQ ID NO: 4) and hHES1ChIP.R (GAACGGCTCGTGTGAAACTT) (SEQ ID NO: 5) primers that sandwich high affinity binding sequence of Rbpj. Similarly, enrichment of DAB1 promoter fragments was quantified by hDAB1ChIP.F2 (CAAGCTCTGTGCTTGTCTCA) (SEQ ID NO: 6) and hDAB1ChIP.R2 (GTAGCTGTGTGGTCTTATCA) (SEQ ID NO: 7) primers.

Immunohistochemistry

Frozen and paraffin-embedded tissues of mice were prepared according to the standard procedures. Human CRC tissues (n=102, Stages 0-4) had been resected from patients in Kyoto University Hospital who had undergone operations with informed consents in between 2005 and 2007, with the protocol approved by the Ethics Committee of Kyoto University. Human Tissue Array slides (SuperBioChips) were also enrolled in this study for analysis of metastatic CRC and other types of cancer. Sections were stained with H & E or incubated with the primary antibodies specific for DAB1 (SIGMA), Aes (Sonoshita et al., 2011), TRIO(pY1990) or TRIO(pY2681) (prepared as described below) followed by Alexa Fluor (Molecular Probes)-conjugated or biotinylated secondary antibodies (Vector Laboratories).

Overexpression Experiments

Wild-type DAB1 cDNA (provided by Kamon Sanada, The University of Tokyo, Japan) was inserted into pMX-IRES-EGFP (provided by Toshio Kitamura, The University of Tokyo, Japan). Retroviral particles were prepared and infected into RKO cells, and EGFP+ cells were confirmed to express DAB1 stably.

Immunoprecipitation-Western Analysis

ABL1B cDNA was prepared from cDNA pool of human colon and tagged with hemaglutinin (HA) sequence to construct ABL1B-HA. The wild-type cDNA was mutagenized by QuikChange Lightning Multi Site-Directed Mutagenesis Kit (Agilent) to derive kinase-dead ABL1B(K290R)-HA mutant. These ABL1B constructs were placed into pEFBosneo expression vector (provided by Shigekazu Nagata, Kyoto University, Japan). DAB1-Flag cDNA was inserted into pcDNA3 (Invitrogen). TRIO cDNA (provided by Anne Debant, CRBM-CNRS, France) was tagged with T7 sequence and inserted into pCX expression vector carrying CAG promoter and rabbit β-globin poly(A) (provided by Masaru Okabe, Osaka University, Japan). NICD-Myc expression vector was provided by Tasuku Honjo, Kyoto University, Japan. These expression vectors were transfected into CRC or HEK293T cells using Lipofectamine LTX (Invitrogen). Sixteen hours post-transfection, the cells were lysed in lysis buffer (10 mM Tris-Cl, 1 mM EDTA, 150 mM NaCl and 1% NP-40). The supernatants were mixed with agarose conjugated with anti-HA, Flag, T7, or Myc antibodies (MBL). The beads were washed with the lysis buffer and then boiled in SDS sample buffer. The eluted proteins were separated by SDS-PAGE, transferred to nylon membrane and probed with antibodies against HA, Flag, Myc, phosphotyrosine (pY; Cell Signaling Technology), TRIO(pY2681), or T7 (Novagen). Endogenous Notch1 was immunoprecipitated by anti-Notch1 (Santa Cruz), and probed with the same antibody in western analyses. Endogenous Dab1 or Trio was immunoprecipitated by anti-Dab1 or anti-Trio antibodies (Santa Cruz), respectively, from lysates of the mouse gut.

TRIO Mutagenesis

Possible phosphorylation sites of Tyr in TRIO were predicted by NetPhos2.0 online software (http://www.cbs.dtu.dk/services/NetPhos/) (Blom et al., 1999). Among the candidates, we mutagenized 18 Tyr with high probabilities into Phe by QuikChange Lightning Multi Site-Directed Mutagenesis Kit (Agilent) to create YF unphosphorylatable mutants. Each point mutation of TRIO in human cancers was introduced to wild-type TRIO by using the same kit. Construct integrities were confirmed by DNA sequencing and western analyses.

Preparation of Anti-TRIO(pY1990) and Anti-TRIO(pY2681) Antibodies

Peptides 1985-1994 VRDLG(pY)VVEG (SEQ ID NO: 8) and 2676-2686 NPNYI (pY)DVPPE (SEQ ID NO: 9) were synthesized and injected into rabbits at Scrum (Japan). After validation of its titer by ELISA, each antibody was affinity-purified using the immobilized antigen and the unphosphorylated corresponding peptide.

Immunocytochemistry

HCT116 cells were transfected with expression plasmids for T7-TRIO, ABL1BHA and DAB1-Flag, and seeded onto chamber slides (Thermo). After incubation for 16 h, the cells were fixed for 5 min with 3.7% formaldehyde in PBS, permeabilized with PBS containing 0.1% TritonX-100 for min, and then blocked in 5% normal donkey serum for 30 min. Then the specimens were incubated with primary antibodies specific for T7 and Tyr-phosphorylated TRIO for 1 h at room temperature. After three washes with PBS, they were incubated with Alexa Fluor-conjugated secondary antibodies. The specimens were washed with PBS, and then mounted on glass slides with VECTASHIELD Mounting Medium with DAPI (Vector Labs).

Construction of RKO TetON Cells

RKO cells were transfected with pCMV-Tet3G (Clontech), and G418 (Nacalai)-resistant clones were established. The “parent” TetON clones were chosen by its ability to induce luciferase in response to doxycycline (Clontech). Then such parent lines were transfected with pTRE3G vector (Clontech) encoding cDNAs for ABL1B-HA and DAB1-Flag to establish double-inducible “RKO TetON ABL1B-HA/DAB1-Flag” cells. Subsequently, they were transfected with pTRE3G carrying T7-TRIO cDNA to construct triple-inducible “RKO TetON T7-TRIO/ABL1B-HA/DAB1-Flag” cells.

RhoGEF Exchange Assay In Vitro

First, we transfected HEK293T cells with an expression plasmid for T7-TRIO (either WT, Y2681F or G2699V), and pulled-down each TRIO protein from cell lysates using agarose conjugated with anti-T7 antibody (MBL). Then we mixed the TRIO fraction with recombinant RhoA in the presence of mant-GTP (Cytoskeleton) that emits stronger fluorescence when bound to Rho small GTPases (Rossman et al., 2002).

Data Analysis

Data were analyzed by Student's t or chi-square tests using SPSS (IBM) and are presented as mean±SD. P values<0.05 were considered significant.

Results Rbpj is Critical for Invasion of Intestinal Tumors

As we have shown recently, invading and intravasating tumors develop in the intestines of compound mutant mice for Apc and Aes genes (abbreviated as Apc/Aes mice) (FIG. 1A, left) {Sonoshita, 2011}. While Aes inhibits Notch-dependent transcription in CRC, it remains unclear how Notch signaling derepressed by loss of Aes stimulates progression of intestinal tumors. As the transcription factor of Notch signaling, Rbpj (aka CBF1 in human) plays a pivotal role in target gene expression {Artavanis-Tsakonas, 1999}. To determine the roles of Rbpj in progression of endogenous CRC, we introduced an Rbpj null mutation {Han, 2002} into the Apc/Aes double mutant mice in an intestinal epithelium-specific manner, and constructed Apc/Aes/Rbpj triple mutant mice. Interestingly, knocking out Rbpj dramatically reduced tumor invasion and intravasation without affecting their size or number (FIGS. 1A and B, and data not shown), suggesting that Rbpj plays a key role in CRC progression through transcription of the Notch target genes.

Notch Signaling Stimulates Invasion and Transendothelial Migration (TEM) of CRC Cells Through Rho Activation

We next investigated effectors downstream of Notch signaling that promoted CRC invasion and intravasation. The Rho family small GTPases are well-characterized regulators of cell motility that appear essential for cancer metastasis {Hall, 1998; Hall, 2009; Weinberg, 2007}. Therefore, we first studied the activation status of Rho, Rac and Cdc42 in benign (Apc) and invasive (Apc/Aes) colon tumors using pull-down assays. We found that the level of the GTP-bound (i.e., active-form) Rho was significantly increased in the lysates of intestinal tumors from the Apc/Aes compound mutant mice (FIG. 1C), although that of Rac or Cdc42 was not affected or below the detection limit (data not shown).

It is known that recombinant extracellular domain of a Notch ligand protein can activate Notch signaling if immobilized onto a solid surface {Varnum-Finney, 2000} (see also FIGS. 2H and 2I below). We have also reported that immobilized recombinant extracellular portion of DLL4 (rDLL4) stimulates migration of CRC cells in scratch assays. In Colon26 TetON-Aes-Flag cells, doxycycline-induced Aes inhibits Notch signaling, reducing migration in scratch assays {Sonoshita, 2011}. During the migration of this cell line after scratch, we found ˜1.7-fold activation of Rho, which was suppressed significantly by induction of Aes (FIG. 1D). These results suggest that Notch signaling activates Rho to accelerate CRC progression.

We have reported that CRC cells invade into Matrigel, mixture of extracellular matrix produced in mice, in a Notch signaling-dependent manner {Sonoshita, 2011}. Interestingly, Rho inhibitor C3T or Rock inhibitor Y-27632 suppressed both Matrigel invasion and TEM of RKO human CRC cells in dose-dependent manners (FIGS. 1E and F), as well as of HCT116, another human CRC cell line (data not shown). On the other hand, inhibition of Rac with a specific inhibitor NSC23766 did not affect the CRC cell invasion in culture (FIG. 8A). These results indicate that activation of Rho by Notch signaling is critical for CRC invasion.

To determine the chronology of Rho activation, we treated RKO cells with 10 mM EDTA for 2 minutes to induce conformational changes in the Notch receptor, and allowed subsequent cleavage at the S3 site by γ-secretase {Rand, 2000; Tiyanont, 2011}. As expected, we detected the cleaved receptor NICD upon the EDTA treatment, which was blocked by a γ-secretase inhibitor (GSI) DAPT (FIG. 8B). Consistent with the chronology of Rbpj-induced target gene expression, we observed strong Rho activation 6-12 h after EDTA treatment (FIG. 1G). Interestingly, we also noticed transient and moderate Rho activation as early as 5 minutes after EDTA treatment (FIG. 1G). This early activation peaked in 5-10 minutes, and tapered off in 4 h (FIGS. 1G and H). Similar results were obtained with Colon26 and CMT93 mouse CRC cells, as well as with DLD1, SW480 and LS174T human CRC cells (FIG. 8C and data not shown). Consistent with these results, rDLL4 ligand immobilized on the dish surface also activated Rho in cultured CRC cells (FIG. 1I). Furthermore, Rho activation was inhibited when Notch receptor expression was knocked-down (FIG. 1J) or when Notch receptor activation was inhibited by DAPT (FIG. 1K).

Collectively, these data show two distinct phases in Rho activation by the ligand-dependent Notch receptor activation; the early- (within a few minutes) and late-phase (>6 hours) responses that are independent of and dependent on, respectively, Rbpj-mediated transcription of the target genes (see below).

Early-Phase Response: Activation of Rho in CRC Cells is Critical for their Adhesion to ECs

To initiate intra- and extra-vasation, it is necessary for cancer cells to adhere to and migrate through the vascular lining {Miles, 2008; Weinberg, 2007}. We previously reported that ECs stimulate Notch signaling in adjoining CRC cells {Sonoshita, 2011}. Accordingly, we hypothesized that Rho was activated in CRC cells by Notch signaling immediately after making contacts with ECs, enforcing the attachment. As anticipated, C3T (Rho inhibitor) or DAPT (GSI) reduced the number of CRCs remaining attached to the EC layer after washing at 15 min post plating (FIG. 2A). Importantly, RBPJ knockdown in CRC cells (FIG. 2B) did not affect the early-phase Rho activation or the adhesion to ECs (FIGS. 2C and 2D). Consistently, DAPT prevented EC cell adhesion of CRC cells even when RBPJ was knocked-down (FIG. 2D). These results suggest that Notch receptor cleavage activates Rho in the early-phase to promote adhesion of CRC cells to ECs in an Rbpj-independent manner.

Late-Phase Response: Rbpj Transcription Induces Disabled1 (DAB1/Dab1) Expression and Activates Rho

Unlike the early-phase response, we found that the late-phase response was significantly suppressed by RBPJ-knockdown (FIG. 2E). Thus, we speculated that expression of Rbpj target genes was indispensible for the late-phase, activation of Rho, and that this activation helps intra- and extra-vasation of CRC cells after their initial attachment to EC.

Recently, 98 genes were reported as Rbpj targets in NICD transgenic mice {Li, 2012}. Interestingly, 3 genes among them were also induced by Notch signaling in Drosophila {Krejci, 2009}. They were Disabled1 (Dab1) (disabled in Drosophila), Notch1 (Notch), and Hes1/5 (E(sp1)) genes (FIG. 2F).

We focused on DAB1 in this study because Dab1 enhances neuron motility during brain development {Sanada, 2004, Hashimoto-Torii, 2008}. We found that both human DAB1 and mouse Dab1 genes contain high affinity Rbpj binding sequence motifs in their proximal promoter regions like in Drosophila (FIG. 2G), suggesting evolutionally-conserved transcription by Rbpj {Dowell, 2010}. On the other hand, we found that induction of Hes1 caused massive death of CRC cells (data not shown).

To study the effects of Notch receptor activation on DAB1 expression, we applied immobilized rDLL4 to LS174T human CRC cells that had a substantial DAB1 mRNA level among human CRC cell lines (FIG. 9). We found that rDLL4 increased expression of the DAB1 mRNA in a dose-dependent manner whereas DAPT inhibited it (FIG. 2H). In addition, Rbpj was preferentially bound to the DAB1 gene promoter (FIGS. 2G and 2I). NICD was also enriched in the promoter DNA fragments, suggesting that the Notch transactivation complex induced DAB1 expression. Similar results were obtained with another CRC cell line Colo205 that also expressed relatively abundant DAB1 (FIG. S2 and data not shown).

We also found marked induction of Dab1 in CRCs in Apc/Aes mice where Notch signaling was activated {Sonoshita, 2011}, but not in adenomas of Apc mice (FIG. 2J). Collectively, these results indicate that DAB1 is one of the Notch transcription targets in CRC cells.

DAB1 can Stimulate CRC Invasion and Metastasis Through Rho Activation

To determine the roles of DAB1 in CRC progression, we introduced homozygous null mutation of Dab1 additionally into the Apc/Aes mice and constructed Apc/Aes/Dab1 triple mutant mice. Notably, we found that Dab1 mutation inhibited invasion and intravasation of intestinal tumors (FIGS. 3A and 3B).

To confirm the pro-metastatic roles of DAB1 in CRC, we also constructed clonal LS174T derivatives where DAB1 expression was knocked down constitutively (FIG. 3C). After their transplantation into the nude mouse rectum, we found a significant decrease in the number of lung metastatic foci with the DAB1-knockdown cells compared to that with the control cells (FIGS. 3D and 3E). On the other hand, expression of DAB1 in RKO, one of the low expresser CRC cell lines (FIG. 9), increased the lung metastasis from the rectum (FIGS. 3F, 3G and 3H).

Importantly, both the early- and late-phase Rho activation responses were suppressed in DAB1-knockdown CRC cells (FIG. 3I). On the other hand, expression of DAB1 alone was sufficient to activate Rho constitutively. The early-phase activation of Rho was also potentiated by DAB1 expression (FIG. 3J). We also noticed that DAB1 mRNA was induced in control non-silencing, but not in RBPJ-knockdown, CRC cells at around 4 h after Notch activation by EDTA (FIG. 3K). Taken together, it is strongly suggested that in the early-phase after Notch cleavage, endogenous DAB1 activates Rho, and thereafter, Rbpj-induced DAB1 contributes to the late-phase and persistent Rho activation. This interpretation is compatible with the results that knockdown of RBPJ attenuated only the late-phase, but not the early-phase, Rho activation (FIGS. 2C and 2E).

Dab1 Activates Tyrosine Kinase Abl, which Plays an Essential Role in Notch-Mediated Rho Activation and CRC Invasion

In differentiating mouse pheochromocytoma cells, DAB1 was identified as one of the proteins that bound SRC family tyrosine kinases including SRC and FYN, as well as Abelson (ABL) {Howell, 1997}. In Drosophila, the Notch receptor gene (N) genetically interacted with Abl in axon guidance {Giniger, 1998}. The ABL subfamily of tyrosine kinases is conserved evolutionally, containing ABL1 and ABL2 (aka ARG) in mammals, and plays pleiotropic roles in various physiologic and pathologic processes such as cell proliferation and migration {Colicelli, 2010}.

Accordingly, we hypothesized that DAB1 promoted CRC metastasis by activating ABL. To determine the possible roles of ABL in progression of endogenous CRC, we treated Apc/Aes mice with ABL inhibitor imatinib (aka Glivec {Buchdunger, 2001; Sawyers, 2003}), and found significant suppression of CRC invasion without changing the tumor size or number (FIGS. 4A and 4B). Consistently, knockdown of ABL1 and/or ABL2 genes (FIG. 4C, bottom) reduced Matrigel invasion of RKO cells significantly (FIG. 4C, top). Furthermore, Rho activation was suppressed by the double ABL1/ABL2 knockdown (FIG. 4D). Likewise, imatinib blocked the invasion and Rho activation induced by EDTA in dose-dependent manners (FIGS. 4E and 4F). We also found that dasatinib, a dual inhibitor of both ABL and SRC, also suppressed the invasion significantly (FIG. 10A). Although SRC is hyperactivated in a subset of advanced CRC cases {Weinberg, 2007b}, we found that SRC family inhibitor PP2 had only a minor effect (by ˜20%) on the RKO cell invasion in culture (FIG. 10A). Essentially the same results were obtained with HCT116 cells (data not shown). These results suggest that ABL has a role downstream of Notch in Rho activation and CRC progression.

In neurons and HEK293 cells, DAB1 enhances the kinase activity of FYN {Arnaud, 2003; Bock, 2003}. In our assay for CRC invasion, however, SRC family inhibitor PP2 showed only a minor inhibition (FIG. 10A). Accordingly, we asked whether DAB1 interacted with ABL1B, the major and well-characterized splicing variant of ABL1 {Hantschel, 2004, Colicelli, 2010}, to stimulate CRC invasion.

It is known that ABL phosphorylates itself for the maximal kinase activity {Hantschel, 2004}. We found that simultaneous expression of DAB1 increased the level of Tyr-phosphorylated ABL1B (pY-ABL1B) in a dose-dependent manner (FIG. 4G; compare lanes 4-6). In neurons, Tyr-phosphorylated DAB1 (pY-DAB1) was essential for their migration, because it was compromised by expression of the 5YF-DAB1 mutant where the five Tyr residues were replaced with structurally similar, but non-phosphorylatable Phe {Sanada, 2004}. In the CRC cells expressing 5YF-DAB1, we found that the pY-ABL1B level remained low (FIG. 4G; lane 7), indicating that ABL activation was dependent on pY-DAB1. We also found that wild-type DAB1 was Tyr-phosphorylated in the presence of ABL1B but not 5YF-mutant (FIG. 4G; lanes 5-7). It was conceivable that ABL1B directly Tyr-phosphorylated DAB1, because ABL and DAB1 interact with each other physically in mouse intestinal tumors and cultured cells (FIG. 10B and Howell, 1997). Consistent with this interpretation, DAB1 was not phosphorylated in the presence of a kinase-dead (KD) mutant of ABL1B (K290R; Barilá, 2000) (FIG. 4G; lanes 9-10).

These results collectively suggest that DAB1 is phosphorylated in vivo in the presence of ABL, and the pY-DAB1 activates ABL reciprocally to stimulate CRC invasion as one of the downstream effectors of Notch receptor. We propose that ABL activity is a novel therapeutic target against malignant progression of CRC.

TRIO RhoGEF is Tyr-Phosphorylated in the Presence of DAB1 and ABL, and Promotes CRC Invasion

In fly neuronal migration, Drosophila Triple functional domain (dTrio) plays key roles as a downstream effecter of dAbl {Forsthoefel, 2005}. TRIO belongs to the DBL family of GEF proteins that can activate Rho family small GTPases, and is its unique member carrying two GEF domains; one for Rac (GEF1) and the other for Rho (GEF2) (FIG. 5A) {Debant, 1996; Bateman; 2001, Vigil; 2010}. It has been shown that Trio GEF1 activates Rac and causes neuronal migration in Drosophila {Song, 2012}. Because Rac remained unactivated in Apc/Aes mouse CRC, and its inhibition had little effects on CRC invasion (FIG. 8A and data not shown), we focused on Rho activation by TRIO in CRC progression.

Namely, we first knocked down TRIO mRNA expression in HCT116 cells and determined the levels of GTP-Rho upon Notch receptor activation with EDTA. Notably, TRIO knockdown caused significant reduction in the GTP-Rho level and Matrigel invasion capacity (FIGS. 5B and 5C). We obtained essentially the same results with RKO cells as well (data not shown). These results strongly suggest that TRIO plays a key role in CRC invasion through Rho activation in Notch receptor-activated cells.

As dTrio was Tyr-phosphorylated in the presence of dAbl in Drosophila S2 cells {Forsthoefel, 2005}, we hypothesized that ABL caused Tyr-phosphorylation of TRIO also in CRC cells and increased their Rho activity. As hypothesized, we found that ABL1B alone slightly increased the level of pY-TRIO in CRC cells (FIG. 5D, lane 3). Interestingly, the level of pY-TRIO increased significantly when ABL1B was co-expressed with wild-type DAB1 but not with 5YF mutant DAB1 (FIG. 5D, lanes 4-5). On the other hand, the kinase-dead (KD) ABL1B mutant could not increase the pY-TRIO level (FIG. 5D, lanes 6-7). These results collectively indicate that Tyr-phosphorylation of TRIO was dependent on the kinase activity of ABL.

To determine the particular target Tyr residues in TRIO by ABL, we first screened the primary amino acid sequence of TRIO with online NetPhos2.0 software {Blom, 1999}. It predicted the probability of phosphorylation for all 61 Tyr residues, and identified 30 as likely candidates' with scores above the threshold of 0.5. We succeeded in constructing TRIO mutants where 18 of them were converted to Phe either singly or in combination (YF mutants in FIG. 5A).

We then investigated whether the YF mutations affected the in vivo pY level of the TRIO protein as a whole, and found that TRIO(18YFs) showed significantly reduced pY level compared with TRIO(WT) (FIG. 5E, lanes 1-2). Although TRIO(7YFs-a) and TRIO(7YFs-b) were Tyr-phosphorylated similarly to control TRIO(WT), TRIO(11YFs) that contained additional four YF mutations at positions 1990, 2562, 2681 and 2757 had markedly reduced pY level (FIG. 5E, lanes 3-5). We observed similar reduction in the pY levels for the TRIO(4YFs) mutant where only the additional four tyrosines were mutated (FIG. 5E, lane 6). Among these four tyrosines, we identified Y1990 and Y2681 as the key targets of phosphorylation in the presence of ABL-DAB1, because the Y1990F and Y2681F mutants showed only modest pY levels (FIG. 5F, lanes 2 and 4, respectively).

TRIO(pY2681) Helps Stratify CRC Patients with Poor Prognosis Even at Stages I and II

To determine the clinical relevance of the TRIO phosphorylation, we investigated whether Y1990 and/or Y2681 were phosphorylated in human primary CRC specimens. To this end, we produced specific antibodies for TRIO(pY1990) and TRIO(pY2681), respectively (FIG. 11). However, the survival rate was not much different between the TRIO(pY1990)-positive and -negative CRC patients (p=0.9, data not shown).

Interestingly, the patients carrying TRIO(pY2681)-positive CRC showed statistically significant reduction in survival as compared with the patients carrying TRIO(pY2681) -negative CRC (all stages included, n=102, p=0.01 in chi-square test; FIG. 6A, left). When we focused on stages I and II combinedTRIO(pY2681)-negative CRC patients had complete (100%) cure whereas the positive ones showed ˜20% death in 5 years (n=63, p=0.04; FIG. 6A, center). Even for the stage II patients alone (n=46), similar distribution was observed between TRIO(pY2681)-positive patients and -negative subpopulations (p=0.1; FIG. 6A, right). Namely, TRIO(pY2681)-negative CRC patients were free of relapse if resected at stage I or II. Accordingly, the phosphorylation status of TRIO(Y2681) helps predict patient prognosis with a greater accuracy than other biomarkers {Salazar, 2010}.

Compared with the adjacent normal mucosa or lymphoid follicles, CRC cells contained much higher levels of TRIO(pY2681) in the cytoplasm (FIG. 6B). Curiously, TRIO(pY2681) signals were also found in the isolated, budding or invading CRC cells in the stroma (arrowheads in FIGS. 6C-E), suggesting that TRIO(pY2681) was critical for CRC invasion. Indeed, the presence of TRIO(pY2681) was correlated with the depth of invasion (m, sm and mp vs. ss, se and si, p<0.0001 in chi-square test) and stages (stages 0-I vs. II-IV, p=0.02; stages 0-III vs. IV, p=0.02 in chi-square tests).

Aes Suppresses Phosphorylation of TRIO(pY2681)

Aes suppresses CRC progression by inhibiting Notch signaling {Sonoshita, 2011}. Interestingly, nuclear expression of AES was inversely correlated with TRIO(pY2681) levels in human CRC specimens (p<0.01 in chi-square test, representative photos in FIG. 7A). Furthermore, we found stronger pY2681 signal in the immunoprecipitated Trio from Apc/Aes intestinal tumors than those from Apc mice (FIG. 7B). Therefore, we hypothesized that phosphorylation of TRIO(Y2681) is critical for CRC metastasis caused by loss of AES. Because Aes sequesters effectors of Notch signaling including NICD, Maml and Rbpj to nuclear foci {Sonoshita, 2011}, it is conceivable that Aes inhibits phosphorylation of TRIO(Y2681) by blocking both the early- and the late-phase responses mediated by NICD. Collectively, these results show that the AES has a key role in the activation of TRIO RhoGEF (GEF2).

Phosphorylation of TRIO(Y2681) Stimulates RhoGEF Activity and CRC Invasion

To study the roles of TRIO(pY2681) in CRC invasion, we constructed clonal RKO cells where either TRIO(WT) or unphosphorylatable TRIO(Y2681F) mutant was induced simultaneously with ABL1B and DAB1 in a doxycycline (Dox)-dependent manner (FIG. 7C). Interestingly, simultaneous expression of TRIO(WT) but not TRIO(Y2681F) with ABL1B and DAB1 stimulated the Matrigel invasion capacity of RKO cells (FIG. 7C).

To evaluate the effects of TRIO Tyr-phosphorylation on Rho activation, we performed RhoGEF GTP-exchange assays in vitro using purified proteins. As TRIO-producing host cells, we chose HEK293T rather than CRC cells to avoid possibly confusing results by various gene mutations in CRC cells. We confirmed that TRIO(WT) protein purified from transfected cells stimulated the exchange reaction from GDP to GTP on recombinant RhoA as reported {Debant, 1996} (FIG. 7D). Importantly, TRIO(WT) purified from imatinib-treated transfectant cells showed significantly decreased capacity of Rho activation (FIG. 7E), suggesting critical effects by endogenous ABL kinase on Rho activation by TRIO. Notably, TRIO(Y2681F) showed similarly reduced GEF activity (FIG. 7E), indicating that phosphorylation at Y2681 is essential for its maximal GEF activity. These results collectively indicate that ABL causes phosphorylation of TRIO at Y2681 and increases GTP-Rho, resulting in enhanced invasion of CRC cells.

A TRIO Point Mutation in Human Cancer Stimulates its RhoGEF Activity

We further investigated possible TRIO mutations in human cancers. In the COSMIC (Catalogue of Somatic Mutations in Cancer) database, we found that 2% (102 among 4414) of various types of cancer contained 141 TRIO mutations. Notably, one mutation was found in CRC in the GEF2 domain (L2044I). We also found seven mutations in the Ig-like domain and its preceding region that contained Y2681. They were E2652G, G2658S, T2695M and S2767L in endometrial cancer, N2668S in breast, S2671Y in kidney, and G2699V (indicated by a star in FIG. 5A) in lung cancers. We constructed these point mutants of TRIO, and tested their RhoGEF activities. Interestingly, we found that the TRIO(G2699V) mutant was more capable of activating Rho than TRIO(WT), although it did not affect Rac activity (FIG. 7F and data not shown). Curiously, TRIO(G2699V) was more susceptible to Tyr-phosphorylation than wild-type in the presence of ABL and DAB1 (FIG. 7G). Collectively, these results suggest that TRIO mutations can activate RhoGEF capacity by boosting its Tyr-phosphorylation by DAB1-ABL, causing progression in a subset of human cancers.

TRIO(pY2681) is Found Various Types of Cancer We further investigated whether Y2681 of TRIO is phosphorylated not only in the primary CRC but also in its metastasis as well as in other types of cancer. As a result, we found TRIO(pY2681) is present in the metastatic cells and also in various types of cancer (FIG. 12, Table 2). Those results indicate that this metastasis mechanism is critical in multiple types of cancer.

TABLE 2 Organs retaining TRIO(pY2681) Adrenal gland Blood (lymphoma) Bone Brain Breast Colorectum Endometrium Esophagus Gallbladder Kidney Larynx Liver Lung Oral cavity Ovary Pancreas Prostate Salivary gland Skin Small intestine (GIST) Soft tissue Stomach Testis Thyroid Urinary bladder Uterine cervix Types of Cancer that Show Strong Prognostic Correlation with TRIO(pY2681).

Regarding CRC, we have extended our study to a larger number of cases (FIG. 13). With the total number of 339 cases all stages combined, we have found statistically significant difference between the TRIO(pY2681)- and TRIO(pY2681)+ patients in their prognosis (P<0.001). Importantly, for the stage II patients (n=115), the five-year survival rate for the negative patients has turned out to be ˜100%, whereas for those of Stage IV (n=57), the survival rate for the negative patients was ˜50% and that for the positive patients was only ˜10%.

Moreover, the patients of lung adenocarcinoma (n=214) showed significant difference in their prognosis between the TRIO(pY2681)-negative vs. -positive (P=0.002) (FIG. 14).

Likewise, the patients of gastric cancer in Stages (I-III), showed significant difference in their prognosis between the TRIO(pY2681)-negative vs. -positive (P<0.001) (FIG. 15).

In addition, preliminary data (n=20) have indicated a strong tendency that patients of pancreatic adenocarcinomas show better survival if their Trio(pY2681) is negative compared with those positive (FIG. 16). The statistical significance of this tendency was almost the same as that of another pancreatic cancer marker Smad4, although Trio(pY2681) and Smad4 are unrelated independent markers.

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1. A method for determining prognosis of cancer in a subject, which comprises the step of detecting phosphorylation of a tyrosine residue at position 2681 of TRIO in a sample obtained from the subject, wherein absence of phosphorylation indicates good prognosis of cancer.
 2. The method of claim 1, wherein the sample is a cancerous tissue which has been obtained from the primary tumor by surgical resection.
 3. The method of claim 2, wherein absence of phosphorylation indicates likelihood of long survival after surgical resection of the primary tumor.
 4. The method of claim 2, wherein presence of phosphorylation indicates necessity of adjuvant therapy after surgical resection of the primary tumor.
 5. The method of claim 1, wherein phosphorylation is detected by an antibody which specifically binds to TRIO (pY2681).
 6. The method of claim 1, wherein phosphorylation is detected by immunohistochemistry assays, Western analysis or ELISA.
 7. The method of claim 1, wherein the cancer is selected from the group consisting of colorectal cancer, breast cancer, lung cancer, pancreas cancer, and gastric cancer.
 8. The method of claim 7, wherein the cancer is selected from the group consisting of colorectal cancer and gastric cancer.
 9. The method of claim 8, wherein the cancer is colorectal cancer.
 10. The method of claim 9, wherein the cancer is colorectal cancer at stage I or II.
 11. The method of claim 10, wherein the cancer is colorectal cancer at stage II.
 12. An antibody which specifically binds to TRIO (pY2681).
 13. A diagnostic composition for determining prognosis of cancer which comprises the antibody of claim
 12. 14. A kit for determining prognosis of cancer which comprises the antibody of claim
 12. 15-21. (canceled) 